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| Prismatic Color Wheel |
When a yellow wall is hit by white light, be it sunlight or artificial, the wavelengths of the color yellow reflect off the wall into our eyes, stimulating our brain.[3] Different colors emit different lengths of wavelengths of light - some shorter, some longer - when they are hit by white light; this light is energy which can stimulate different parts of the brain, particularly through the retina and skin. The general concept is not dissimilar to how sunlight produces growth in plants; different light wavelengths are essentially exercising and forcing growth and activation of different parts of the brain. A long wavelength of a bright yellow room will stimulate emotional, irrational parts of the brain, whereas a deep blue with a far shorter wavelength has a calming effect and tends to stimulate cold rationale, logic, and mathematical parts of the brain.
Influence of Color on Perception
Perceptions not obviously related to color, such as the palatability of food, may in fact be partially determined by color. Not only the color of the food itself but also that of everything in the eater's field of vision can affect this.
Placebo Effect
The color of placebo pills is reported to be a factor in their effectiveness, with "hot-colored" pills working better as stimulants and "cool-colored" pills working better as depressants. This relationship is believed to be a consequence of the patient's expectations and not a direct effect of the color itself.[3] Consequently, these effects appear to be culture-dependent.[4]
Blue Public Lighting
In 2000, Glasgow installed blue street lighting in certain neighborhoods and subsequently reported the anecdotal finding of reduced crime in these areas. This report was picked up by several news outlets.[5][6] A railroad company in Japan installed blue lighting on its stations in October 2009 in an effort to reduce the number of suicide attempts,[7] although the effect of this technique has been questioned.[8]
Color Preference and Associations between Color and Mood
Color has long been used to create feelings of coziness or spaciousness. However, how people are affected by different color stimuli varies from person to person.
Blue is the top choice for 35% of Americans, followed by green (16%), purple (10%) and red (9%).[9] A preference for blue and green may be due to a preference for certain habitats that were beneficial in the ancestral environment as explained in the evolutionary aesthetics article.[10]
There is evidence that color preference may depend on ambient temperature. People who are cold prefer warm colors like red and yellow while people who are hot prefer cool colors like blue and green.[1] Some research has concluded that women and men respectively prefer "warm" and "cool" colors.[1]
A few studies have shown that cultural background has a strong influence on color preference. These studies have shown that people from the same region regardless of race will have the same color preferences. Also, one region may have different preferences than another region (i.e., a different country or a different area of the same country), regardless of race.[1]
Children's preferences for colors they find to be pleasant and comforting can be changed and can vary, while adult color preference is usually non-malleable.[1]
Some studies find that color can affect mood. However, these studies do not agree on precisely which moods are brought out by which colors.[1]
Despite cross-cultural differences regarding what different colors meant there were cross-cultural similarities regarding what emotional states people associated with different colors in one study. For example, the color red was perceived as strong and active.[11]
Light, Color, and Surroundings
Light and color can influence how people perceive the area around them. Different light sources affect how the colors of walls and other objects are seen. Specific hues of colors seen under natural sunlight may vary when seen under the light from an incandescent (tungsten) light-bulb: lighter colors may appear to be more orange or "brownish" and darker colors may appear even darker.[12] Light and the color of an object can affect how one perceives its positioning. If light or shadow, or the color of the object, masks an object's true contour (outline of a figure) it can appear to be shaped differently than it really is.[12] Objects under a uniform light-source will promote better impression of three-dimensional shape.[12]
The color of an object may affect whether or not it seems to be in motion. In particular, the trajectories of objects under a light source whose intensity varies with space are more difficult to determine than identical objects under a uniform light source. This could possibly be interpreted as interference between motion and color perception, both of which are more difficult under variable lighting.[12]
Color in Jungian Psychology
Carl Jung is most prominently associated with the pioneering stages of color psychology. Jung was most interested in colors’ properties and meanings, as well as in art’s potential as a tool for psychotherapy. His studies in and writings on color symbolism cover a broad range of topics, from mandalas to the works of Picasso to the near-universal sovereignty of the color gold, the lattermost of which, according to Charles A. Riley II, “expresses … the apex of spirituality, and intuition”.[13] In pursuing his studies of color usage and effects across cultures and time periods, as well as in examining his patients’ self-created mandalas, Jung attempted to unlock and develop a language, or code, the ciphers of which would be colors. He looked to alchemy to further his understanding of the secret language of color, finding the key to his research in alchemical transmutation. His work has historically informed the modern field of color psychology.
General Model of Color Psychology
The general model of color psychology relies on six basic principles. First is that color can carry specific meaning. Second, color meaning is either based in learned meaning or biologically innate meaning. Third, the perception of a color causes evaluation automatically by the person perceiving. Fourth, the evaluation process forces color motivated behavior. Fifth, color usually exerts its influence automatically. Last, color meaning and effect has to do with context as well.[14]
Uses in Marketing
Given that people make up their minds about whether or not to buy something within ninety seconds of first encounter, color psychology has become important to marketing. The color red is believed to increase appetite, and is thus commonly used in fast food restaurants. On the other hand, the color red is believed to relax people, and is thus used by higher class restaurants to persuade customers to stay longer.
Color may also affect subjective time. Red and blue are respectively believed to make time appear to pass more quickly and more slowly. Casinos, for example, use red lighting in an attempt to keep customers inside for a longer period of time.[15] Color may also affect brand perceptions, such as brand personality [16].
Color and Sports Performance
In particular the color red has been found to influence sports performance. During the 2004 Summer Olympics the competitors in boxing, taekwondo, freestyle wrestling, and Greco-Roman wrestling were randomly given blue or red uniforms. A later study found that those wearing red won 55% of all the bouts which was a statistically significant increase over the expected 50%. The colors affected bouts where the competitors were closely matched in ability, where those wearing red won 60% of the bouts, but not bouts between more unevenly matched competitors.
In England, since WWII, teams wearing red uniforms have averaged higher league positions and have had more league winners than teams using other colors. In cities with more than one team, the teams wearing red outperformed the teams wearing other colors. A study of the UEFA Euro 2004 found similar results. Another study found that those taking penalty kicks performed worst when the goalkeeper had a red uniform. More anecdotal is the historical dominance of the domestic honors by red-wearing teams such AFC Ajax, FC Bayern Munich, Liverpool F.C., and Manchester United F.C.. Videos of taekwondo bouts were manipulated in one study so that the red and blue colors of the protective gears were reversed. Both the original and the manipulated videos were shown to referees. The competitors wearing red were given higher scores despite the videos otherwise being identical. A study on experienced players of first-person shooters found that those assigned to wear red instead of blue won 55% of the matches.[11]
There are several different explanations for this effect. Red is used in stop signs and traffic lights which may associate the color with halting. Red is also perceived as a strong and active color which may influence both the person wearing it and others. An evolutionary psychology explanation is that red may signal health as opposed to anemic paleness as well indicate anger due to flushing instead of paleness due to fear. It has been argued that detecting flushing may have influenced the development of primate trichromatic vision. Primate studies have found that some species evaluate rivals and possible also mates depending on red color characteristics. Facial redness is associated with testosterone levels in humans and male skin tend to be redder than female skin.[11]
Color Symbolism
Color symbolism in art and anthropology refers to the use of color as a symbol in various cultures. There is great diversity in the use of colors and their associations between cultures[1] and even within the same culture in different time periods.[2] In fact, the same color may have very different associations within the same culture at any time. For example, the colors red [and green] are often used in North America and Europe for traffic signals[3] or to alert a person to danger.[4] At the same time, red is also frequently used in association with romance, e.g. with Valentine's Day.[5]
Symbolic representations of religious concepts or articles may include a specific color with which the concept or object is associated.[6] There is evidence to suggest that colors have been used for this purpose as early as 90,000 BC.[7]
Criticism
Inherent difficulties in properly controlling trials of color's effect on human beings mean that a subject's expectations and cultural bias cannot be ruled out. Moreover, much evidence is anecdotal (e.g. the blue street lighting case) or based on data that includes confounders (e.g. the shirt-color correlation). Chromotherapy, a form of alternative medicine, is based on the hypothesis that distinct colors have health effects[13] unrelated to the aforementioned placebo effect.
References 1. Whitfield, T. W. A., & Wiltshire, T. J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical review. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 116(4), 387, http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=1&hid=113&sid=e386d5f5-ca68-469f-bfd4-19238321e445%40sessionmgr111&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#db=aph&AN=9604163308#db=aph&AN=9604163308 2. Attrill, M.; Gresty, K.; Hill, R.; Barton, R. (2008). "Red shirt colour is associated with long-term team success in English football". Journal of sports sciences 26 (6): 577–582. doi:10.1080/02640410701736244. PMID 18344128. 3. De Craen, A. J.; Roos, P. J.; Leonard De Vries, A.; Kleijnen, J. (1996). "Effect of colour of drugs: Systematic review of perceived effect of drugs and of their effectiveness". BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 313 (7072): 1624–1626. doi:10.1136/bmj.313.7072.1624. PMC 2359128. PMID 8991013. 4. Dolinska, B. (1999). "Empirical investigation into placebo effectiveness" (w). Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 16 (2): 57–58. Retrieved 2009-04-29. 5. "Blue streetlights believed to prevent suicides, street crime". The Seattle Times. 2008-12-11. 6. Shimbun, Yomiuri (December 10, 2008). "Blue streetlights may prevent crime, suicide". 7. Can Blue-Colored Light Prevent Suicide? 8. Will Blue Lights Reduce Suicides in Japan? 9. Emotional Reactions to Color by Kathy Lamancusa 10. Dutton, Denis. 2003. 'Aesthetics and Evolutionary Psychology' in "The Oxford Handbook for Aesthetics". Oxford University Press. 11. Diana Widermann, Robert A. Barton, and Russel A. Hill. Evolutionary perspectives on sport and competition. In Roberts, S. C. (2011). Applied Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001. ISBN 9780199586073. 12. Shevell, S. K.; Kingdom, F. A. A. (2008). "Color in Complex Scenes". Annual Review of Psychology 59: 143–166. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093619. PMID 18154500. 13. Riley, Charles A. II. “Color Codes: Modern Theories of Color in Philosophy, Painting and Architecture, Literature, Music, and Psychology”. Hanover: University Press of New England, 1995, p. 307. 14. Whitfield, T. W., & Whiltshire, T. J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical review. Genetic, Social, General Psychology Monographs, 116(4). 15. Singh, S. (2006). "Impact of color on marketing". Management Decision 44 (6): 783. doi:10.1108/00251740610673332. 16. Labrecque, L. I.; Milne, G. R. (2011). "Exciting red and competent blue: The importance of color in marketing". Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. doi:10.1007/s11747-010-0245-y. 17. Azeemi, Y; Raza SM (2005). "A Critical Analysis of Chromotherapy and Its Scientific Evolution". Evidence-Based Complementary Alternative Medicine 2 (4): 481–488. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh137. PMC 1297510. PMID 16322805.
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